On Bullshit

Oneofthemostsalientfeaturesofourcultureisthatthereissomuchbullshit.Everyoneknowsthis.Eachofuscontributeshisshare.Butwetendtotakethesituationforgranted.Mostpeopleareratherconfidentoftheirabilitytorecognizebullshitandtoavoidbeingtakeninbyit.Sothephenomenonhasnotarousedmuchdeliberateconcern.Wehavenoclearunderstandingofwhatbullshitis,whythereissomuchofit,orwhatfunctionsitserves.Andwelackaconscientiouslydevelopedappreciationofwhatitmeanstous.Inotherwords,asHarryFrankfurtwrites,"wehavenotheory."Frankfurt,oneoftheworld'smostinfluentialmoralphilosophers,attemptstobuildsuchatheoryhere.Withhischaracteristiccombinationofphilosophicalacuity,psychologicalinsight,andwryhumor,Frankfurtproceedsbyexploringhowbullshitandtherelatedconceptofhumbugaredistinctfromlying.Hearguesthatbullshittersmisrepresentthemselvestotheiraudiencenotasliarsdo,thatis,bydeliberatelymakingfalseclaimsaboutwhatistrue.Infact,bullshitneednotbeuntrueatall.Rather,bullshittersseektoconveyacertainimpressionofthemselveswithoutbeingconcernedaboutwhetheranythingatallistrue.Theyquietlychangetherulesgoverningtheirendoftheconversationsothatclaimsabouttruthandfalsityareirrelevant.Frankfurtconcludesthatalthoughbullshitcantakemanyinnocentforms,excessiveindulgenceinitcaneventuallyunderminethepractitioner'scapacitytotellthetruthinawaythatlyingdoesnot.Liarsatleastacknowledgethatitmatterswhatistrue.Byvirtueofthis,Frankfurtwrites,bullshitisagreaterenemyofthetruththanliesare.